Training the Heavens

Chapter 266 Two Dark Clouds
On New Year's Day in 1900, the highly respected physicist Lord Kelvin expressed confidence at a reception held by the Royal Society of London to welcome the new century: the building of physics has been completed, and only some finishing work remains.

Max Planck had heard these words from his physics teacher Philipp von Joly as early as 1874 when he chose physics as his major.

This was almost a consensus among physicists in the late 19th century, because Newton stood on the shoulders of the giant Galileo and established a complete system of classical mechanics. From then on, physics truly broke away from the general philosophical category and became a true scientific theory.

Newton's theory was not only based on his own thinking, but also came from his own experiments. More importantly, he used mathematical tools to draw precise conclusions, unlike those philosophers who gave vague conclusions based on subjective conjectures. Moreover, Newton's theory could be used to make accurate predictions, which could be said to be "pointing wherever it hits the target."

Neptune and Pluto, the farthest planets from us in the solar system, were discovered through calculations based on Newton's theory of universal gravitation. They are called "planets discovered on the tip of the pen" and prove the correctness of Newton's theory.

After Newton, everyone added various details within the framework of Newton's classical mechanics. By the end of the 19th century, the edifice of classical physics was finally established, and it had reached its peak of perfection. It was centered on Newtonian mechanics and supported by three branches: electromagnetic theory, thermodynamics, and wave optics. In the eyes of many physicists, physics seemed to have reached its end.

Lippmann also thought so, and his research was also to make some repairs inside the building of classical physics. His most important work now is the study of the magnetism of steel.

Today, the steel and machinery industries are flourishing and developing very rapidly. The automobile industry, electric power industry, and railway transportation industry are also developing rapidly. The General Electric Company of the United States was established, and the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway began.
All this increased the demand for steel and the requirement for high-quality grades, but the magnetization of steel seriously hindered the development of the machinery industry. Therefore, the French Industrial Promotion Association asked Professor Lippmann to study an important topic: the magnetic properties of various steels.

Marie and Pierre were also deeply involved in this project. Pierre's doctoral thesis "Magnetism of Materials at Various Temperatures" and Marie's graduation thesis "Magnetic Properties of Quenched Steel" were both results of this project.

So in this speech, Lippmann talked a lot about the perfection of the edifice of classical physics. This science is very close to taking the most stable form; perhaps, there is still a speck of dust or a small bubble in some corner, which can be studied and classified.

However, as a complete system, it was established firmly enough, and he advised students not to focus on meaningless things such as creating new theories, but to concentrate on solving more practical problems.

Most of the audience, including the Curies, agreed with the speech, except Zhang Xingjiu and another young man. When the speech ended and the students applauded, their expressions were the most perfunctory.

They both seemed to be aware of each other's presence and nodded to each other. Coincidentally, when the show was over, Pierre took him to find Zhang Xingjiu and introduced him. "This is Mr. Paul Langevin, who is studying at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris. Paul was my student for a while. He has an outstanding talent in physics. I'm sure you two will get along well."

Marie also told an interesting story about Lang Zhiwan. "When Paul was preparing to apply to the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, he discovered that proficiency in Latin was required to get in. He took only six months to achieve first place in the exam. You two share the same talent for languages."

"You seem to have a different opinion on Professor Lippmann's speech?" Lang Zhiwan asked after shaking hands with Zhang Xingjiu. "Yes, I do. Why don't we talk somewhere else?" Zhang Xingjiu was also interested in chatting with this talented physicist, who would later chair two Solvay Physics Conferences, and extended an invitation.

So the four of them immediately walked to Zhang Xingjiu's apartment. After making some coffee and enjoying some cakes and snacks they had bought on the way, Zhang Xingjiu began to explain his views. "There are many contradictions in the existing theories."

"For example, the speed of light. Under Newtonian mechanics, the speed of light can be superimposed using Galilean transformations. This means that the speed of light is not constant; sometimes it's fast, sometimes it's slow. Superluminal speeds are quite common. However, Maxwell's equations are different; they give a constant value for the speed of light."

"Take the question of the ether. Michelson and Morley's famous experiment in Cleveland nine years ago proved that the speed of light is the same whether the direction of the Earth's motion is aligned with or opposite to the direction of the light. There is no relative motion between the Earth and the hypothetical ether; therefore, there is no ether or absolutely static space at all."

"Another example is the blackbody radiation experiment, which discovered that the energy of blackbody radiation is not continuous; its wavelength distribution is related only to the temperature of the blackbody. From the perspective of classical physics, this experimental result is incredible."

The questions raised by Zhang Xingjiu, especially the last two, have been recognized by many in the physics community. Lord Kelvin also said in a speech, "Dynamic theory confirms that heat and light are two modes of motion. Now, its beautiful and clear sky is covered by two dark clouds."

Lang Zhiwan has also done some research on these two problems. "These two problems cannot be explained by classical physics theory. This seems to be bad news for Professor Lippmann because it may lead to the collapse of his faith. But it is good news for us because it indicates new possibilities. Professor Lippmann may not have much energy to study these problems, but we are not short of time and energy."

"If we can dispel these two dark clouds hanging over the building of physics, perhaps we can also become great figures in the history of physics like Newton and Maxwell!" Zhang Xingjiu said with a smile.

"Clap, clap, clap!" Lang Zhiwan couldn't help but start clapping. "Two dark clouds on the edifice of physics—this metaphor is truly fantastic and perfectly describes the current state of theoretical physics."

"So, what are your ideas for dispelling these two dark clouds?" Pierre asked curiously. Although his research field was more inclined towards practical impact, it did not mean that he had no interest in theory.

Lang Zhiwan spoke eloquently, but although he pointed out the problem, he did not propose a solution.

Zhang Xingjiu came up with a more practical plan, "Perhaps, we can do an experiment."

(End of this chapter)