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Since 1388, when Lan Yu led his army deep into the northern desert and decisively defeated the main force of the Northern Yuan on the Hulunbuir Grassland, the Tianyuan Emperor fled westward in panic, and the political landscape of the Mongolian Plateau was shaken up.

The once mighty Golden Family, which dominated the northern deserts, saw its authority plummet, and the various tribes of the grasslands were plunged into a power restructuring that lasted for more than a century.

In this grand game concerning the fate of Mongolia, the power struggle between the Oirats and Tatars, the Ming Dynasty's balancing strategies, and the clash between nomadic and agricultural civilizations together composed a magnificent epic of the northern frontier in the 15th century.

When the three tribes of the Uriyangkhai submitted to the Ming Dynasty on the Hulunbuir Grassland, and the Ming Taizu (Hongwu Emperor) took the opportunity to establish the Doyan Three Guards, the Mongol forces had already quietly split into two major groups, east and west.

The Oirat in the west retained the ancient bloodlines of the Turks and Uyghurs, while the Tatars in the east continued the traditions of the orthodox Mongol tribes.

The tragic end of the Tianyuan Emperor's escape to the banks of the Tula River—his assassination by Yesuder, a descendant of Ariq Böke supported by the Oirat Mongols—marked the complete end of the Northern Yuan regime.

From then on, the dynasty name "Great Yuan" was abolished, and the use of reign titles for dating ceased. Mongolia entered an era of Grand Tutor's absolute power, and the Great Khan became a puppet in the hands of powerful ministers.

The power struggles of the Taishi era first unfolded within the Oirat Mongols.

After Yesuder became Khan, he moved the Khan's court westward, setting a precedent for the Oirat Mongols to control the Great Khan.

However, after his son Enk succeeded to the throne in 1391, Ughzihashha's act of regicide set the stage for a power struggle between the Hashha and Choros families that lasted for more than a decade.

From Haohai Dayu's appointment as Grand Tutor to his son Mahmud's revenge coup, from the murder of Elbeg Khan to the assassination of Kuntemur Khan, the power shifts within the Oirat were like the bloody and cruel struggles of wolves on the grasslands.

Meanwhile, the eastern Tatars quietly rose to prominence under the leadership of Arughtai.

In 1403, he installed Guilichi as Khan, and in 1408, he installed Benyashiri, a member of the Golden Family who had returned from Central Asia. Arughtai cleverly reinstated the position of Great Khan to Kublai Khan's lineage, thus securing legitimacy for the Tatars.

While the Oirats and Tatars clashed fiercely on the vast grasslands from the Kerulen River to Karakorum, the Ming court in Nanjing was implementing its carefully crafted strategy of "using barbarians to control barbarians."

The seventh year of the Tiangong era (1409) became a crucial turning point in the shift of power on the grasslands.

The Ming envoys brought imperial edicts to the north, bestowing titles upon the Kings of Shun Ning, Xian Yi, and An Le. Mahmud and other Oirat leaders gladly accepted the investiture.

Behind this edict lay enormous economic interests: through tributary trade, the Oirat Mongols could obtain rewards far exceeding the value of the tribute, providing them with an important source of funds to expand their military.

Arughtai, who was nomadic in the Kerulen River basin, angered Emperor Tiangong Suning by trying to win over the three Uriyangkhai tribes under the Ming Dynasty. His request for a title was rejected, and he lost the first move in the political game.

The Tatar westward expedition that year can be considered a strategic mistake by Arughtai.

Before securing the support of the Ming Dynasty, they hastily launched an attack on the Oirat Mongols, resulting in heavy losses against Mahmud's meticulously prepared defenses. Even Karakorum, a symbol of Mongol legitimacy, fell into the hands of the Oirat Mongols.

After this battle, the hegemony of the steppe changed hands, the number of Oirat archers increased to 300,000, and Mahmud became the new ruler of the Mongolian Plateau.

The Ming court's diplomatic shift seemed particularly relevant at this moment.

Seeing the growing power of the Oirat Mongols, Suning immediately sent envoys to contact the Tatars in an attempt to restore the balance of power.

However, this emperor, who was well-versed in the art of diplomacy, underestimated the pride of the nomadic peoples of the grasslands.

When the renowned diplomat Guo Ji ventured deep into northern Mongolia with a mission of peace, he encountered Arughtai, a man who had just experienced defeat and humiliation but still upheld national dignity.

Inside the Golden Tent on the banks of the Kerulen River, negotiations on the terms of submission reached a stalemate and ultimately ended in the tragedy of Guo Ji's murder. This diplomatic incident foreshadowed a new period of turmoil in Ming-Mongol relations.

At this time, the Mongolian Plateau presented a tripartite balance of power: the western Oirat Mongols relied on the Ming Dynasty's investiture to strengthen their power, the eastern Tatars clung to the legitimacy of the Golden Family and struggled to survive, while the Ming Dynasty maintained the division of the grasslands by supporting the weaker side.

This delicate balance would continue to shape the military and political landscape of northern Xinjiang for the next half-century, until the sudden emergence of Dayan Khan broke this power game.

The Doyan Three Guards on the Hulunbuir Grassland, as a special entity between the Ming and Mongol forces, will continue to seek a way to survive between the two major powers, becoming an important witness to the eve of the reunification of Mongolia in the 16th century.

……

In the seventh year of the Tiangong era (1409), spring was in full bloom, but the northern grasslands were filled with the sounds of wind and cranes.

After news of Guo Ji's murder reached Nanjing, the air in the Forbidden City froze solid.

Inside the Qianqing Palace, the broken pieces of the teacup that Su Ning had thrown were still on the ground. His face was ashen, and the cold glint in his eyes silenced the eunuchs standing in the hall.

"I treated them with utmost sincerity and sent envoys to return their subjects. Yet they seized and killed the envoys and attempted to plunder them. How dare they act so recklessly?" The emperor's voice was not loud, but it carried a metallic quality, echoing throughout the hall. "Those who defy my orders shall be annihilated!"

The Emperor's will was firm; the Northern Expedition was now a foregone conclusion.

The following day, the morning court session was held at Fengtian Hall.

Emperor Su Ning, the Heavenly Craftsman, issued an imperial edict in court:
"Is appointed Minister of War Tie Xuan as Grand General of the Northern Expedition, in overall command of all military affairs! Marquis of Wucheng Wang Cong as Left Deputy General, Marquis of Tong'an Huo Zhen as Right Deputy General, Marquis of Jing'an Wang Zhong and Marquis of Anping Li Yuan as Left and Right Assistant Generals! Mobilize 100,000 elite troops from the capital garrison and border armies, prepare the army immediately, and launch the Northern Expedition as soon as possible!"

"Your subject, Tie Xuan, obeys the decree!" Tie Xuan, who was over forty years old, stepped forward, his voice steady and powerful.

He knew that this battle was of great importance, not only to avenge the humiliation, but also to establish the Ming Dynasty's absolute advantage in the northern frontier.

No one in the imperial court objected.

Having experienced a series of reforms, including the development of railways and firearms, the court officials had unprecedented confidence in the emperor's judgment and the strength of the army.

The army marched out of the pass, its banners obscuring the sun.

The 100,000-strong Ming army was well-organized, especially the several thousand soldiers in the central army who carried the new "Tiangong" rifles on their shoulders and were followed by dark cannons, exuding a solemn and murderous aura that was completely different from other troops.

However, as anticipated before the war, the Northern Expedition was fraught with difficulties.

The grasslands were vast, and the Tatar cavalry were like ghosts, spying from afar, and scattering without a trace once the Ming army approached.

The army moved slowly, and the supply wagons struggled to move across the grasslands. News frequently came that lone grain transport teams were being attacked by small groups of cavalry.

Tie Xuan remained calm and composed in the center, showing no signs of impatience.

He summoned his generals and pointed to the map, saying, "Arughtai is cunning and wants to emulate the old trick of dragging down the previous dynasty's army. Our army has many soldiers, which is advantageous for a quick battle; their cavalry is fast, which is advantageous for maneuvering. If we are led by the nose, we will surely be trapped in a predicament."

He issued the order: "The army shall maintain its formation, advance steadily, and protect the supply lines. I, the general, will personally lead 1,500 elite cavalry as the vanguard, carrying ten days' rations, and advance swiftly and lightly, straight to the Luqu River (Kerulen River)! We will force them to come out for a decisive battle!"

"General, isn't it too risky for an army to venture deep into enemy territory alone?" Marquis Li Yuan of Anping asked worriedly.

Tie Xuan's gaze sharpened: "Only this way can we lure the enemy out of their hole. I have a new weapon bestowed upon me by His Majesty, which allows me to hold my ground and await reinforcements even if we encounter the enemy's main force. You may proceed according to plan!"

Tie Xuan led the vanguard troops, like a sharp knife piercing straight into the heart of the grassland.

They moved swiftly and soon reached the south bank of the Luqu River.

The small groups of Tatar "cavalry" encountered along the way were easily defeated by the Ming army's cavalry charges and the occasional bursts of accurate rifle fire.

After crossing the river, scouts reported that Arughtai and Benyashiri's camp was only thirty miles away!
"Good!" Tie Xuan's spirits lifted. "Pass on the order to pursue! But remember, maintain formation and do not advance rashly!"

The next few days turned into a bizarre chase.

The Ming army's vanguard clashed with the main Tatar outposts several times. In each engagement, the Tatar cavalry retreated after a brief encounter, leaving behind some tattered tents and a small amount of supplies, as if they were easily defeated.

"General, the Tartars are scared!" a young commander exclaimed excitedly.

Tie Xuan, however, looked grave and shook his head, saying, "It's not out of fear, but a tactic to wear down the enemy. They want to make our army arrogant and complacent, to keep pursuing us until we've exhausted our strength and supplies, and then they'll seize the opportunity to counterattack."

He recalled the emperor's instructions before the battle: "Arughtai should make good use of cavalry archery and guerrilla warfare, and must not underestimate the enemy because of a small victory."

Thus, although the Ming army pursued, it always maintained a tight marching formation, with cavalry, infantry, and wagon troops supporting each other. Whenever they reached a place that was easy to defend, they set up a strong camp and never rushed forward for the sake of merit.

Seeing that the Ming army was not as scattered and exhausted as expected, but instead advanced steadily and cautiously, Arughtai couldn't help but feel anxious.

Especially the vanguard that had ventured deep into enemy territory, well-equipped and disciplined, was like a nail driven into their own heartland.

"The main force of the Ming army is moving slowly. If we can take out this vanguard first, we will surely crush their morale!" After discussing with Benyashiri, Arughtai decided not to wait any longer.

On this day, Tie Xuanjun arrived at an open river valley.

Suddenly, a deep horn sounded from all directions, and countless black dots appeared on the horizon, surging in like a tide...

The main force of the Tatars has finally appeared!
They chose this terrain, which was advantageous for cavalry charges, with the intention of encircling and annihilating this "isolated army" in one fell swoop.

"Form ranks! Defend!" At Tie Xuan's command, the well-trained Ming army moved swiftly.

The wagon barracks formed a barrier on the outside, while the musketeers, relying on the vehicles and terrain, were divided into three ranks and ready for battle. The cavalry protected the flanks.

The Tatar cavalry roared in, their momentum like a stampede of ten thousand horses enough to terrify any opponent.

They brandished their scimitars, letting out terrifying howls, and drew ever closer...

Three hundred steps, two hundred steps, one hundred and fifty steps!

"First rank, take aim!" the officer commanded.

"put!"

"Bang! Bang! Bang!"

A deafening burst of gunfire erupted suddenly, and white smoke billowed out.

The Tatar cavalry at the forefront seemed to have crashed into an invisible wall, with men and horses falling to the ground and screams instantly drowning out the shouts of the charge!
"Second row, let go!"

"Third row, let go!"

They fired in succession, a hail of bullets!
The range, accuracy, and rate of fire of the new rifle far surpassed those of the old muskets.

The Tatar cavalry's traditional charge tactics proved ineffective under the dense hail of bullets.

"Artillery! Bombard their follow-up formations!" Tie Xuan ordered again. The light field guns hidden behind the lines roared, solid shot and grapeshot slicing through the air and falling into the densely packed area of ​​Tatar cavalry, causing even greater chaos and casualties.

Arutai was dumbfounded; he had never seen such intense and sustained firepower.

The cavalry's charge was completely halted, and the battlefield turned into a one-sided massacre.

He attempted to maneuver his troops to outflank the enemy, but the Ming army's formation was tight, with cavalry and infantry on both flanks forming a deadly defensive line using muskets and spears.

"Retreat! Retreat now!" Arutai shouted hoarsely when he saw that the situation was not good.

But it was too late.

The drumbeats in the Ming army formation suddenly changed, and the previously entrenched formation suddenly opened up. The Ming cavalry, who had been resting and recuperating for a long time, led by Wang Cong and Huo Zhen, charged out like sharp swords and pursued the fleeing enemy.

At the same time, the main force of the Ming army, having received the news from the rear, also accelerated its arrival and joined the battle.

The battle turned into a one-sided pursuit.

Having lost their offensive advantage and fighting will, the Tatar army was routed.

Arughtai was hit by a stray bullet and fell from his horse amidst the chaos of battle. He was then captured by Ming soldiers who caught up with him.

Benjani led a small number of his personal guards in a desperate breakout attempt, but their whereabouts remain unknown.

In this battle, the main force of the Tatars was almost completely wiped out, and the Ming army captured countless cattle, sheep, horses, weapons and supplies.

When Arutai was brought before Tie Xuan, this once-powerful warlord of the grasslands was dressed in rags and looked ashen-faced.

Tie Xuan did not insult him, but said in a deep voice: "You killed the envoy and defied the Heavenly Dynasty. Today's defeat is your own fault."

When news of the Battle of Kerulen River reached the Ming Dynasty, the whole country rejoiced.

This battle not only completely crushed the Tatar tribe, which had threatened the northern frontier for many years, but also demonstrated the unparalleled fighting power of the new Ming army to the various tribes of the steppe.

Emperor Su Ning's prestige reached its peak.

After this battle, there was no longer any force in the southern grasslands capable of directly confronting the Ming Dynasty.

Taking advantage of the situation, Su Ning strengthened his control over the Doyan Three Guards, established outposts and trading posts in key locations in southern Mongolia, and promoted the construction of cities. Through military deterrence and economic means, he gradually brought the grasslands under the control of the Ming Dynasty.

Northern Xinjiang has entered a period of unprecedented peace.

……

Before the smoke of battle had completely cleared from the banks of the Kerulen River, news of the victory was relayed back to the Forbidden City in Nanjing at an urgent speed.

Inside the Qianqing Palace, Su Ning looked at the detailed battle report presented by Tie Xuan, without showing much surprise on his face, as if all of this was already within his expectations.

"Arughtai has been beheaded, and the main force of the Tatars has been wiped out. Good! Minister Tie has indeed lived up to my expectations!" Suning put down the battle report, his eyes gleaming.

However, his next decision surprised both the messenger who came to report the victory and the cabinet ministers who were standing by.

"By imperial decree," Su Ning's voice was steady and powerful, brooking no argument, "General Tie Xuan need not return to the capital. His 100,000 troops shall be stationed in the Luqu River region, and a city shall be built in a location with abundant water and grass and a strategically advantageous terrain, named 'Dingbei City'! The Ministry of Works shall immediately select officials and craftsmen skilled in city construction and water conservancy, and send them north with cement, steel bars, and other materials to assist in the construction! The Ministry of Revenue shall coordinate funds and provisions to ensure the uninterrupted supply of the construction army and subsequent garrisons!"

"Your Majesty," Grand Secretary Fang Xiaoru said after a moment's thought, stepping forward, "the army has been stationed beyond the Great Wall for a long time, incurring enormous expenses. Now that the Tatars have been defeated, should we send General Tie back with the prisoners to demonstrate our military prowess and also save on expenditures?"

Su Ning shook his head, stood up, walked to the huge map of northern Xinjiang, and pointed heavily at the area that had just experienced war.

"Minister Fang, defeating an army and truly controlling a piece of land are two different things." He glanced at his ministers. "The grassland tribes have always feared power but not gratitude. If my army retreats, within a few years, new heroes will rise from the ruins, regroup their tribes, and become a border threat again. The dynasties of the Central Plains throughout history have learned a profound lesson from this!"

"Moreover, the Oirats have been developing stealthily all along! Now that the Tatars have been destroyed by our Great Ming, the Mongol Yuan forces are completely out of balance."

Then Su Ning drew a circle on the map, encompassing the vast southern grasslands: "What I want is not to repel, but to assimilate! To truly incorporate this land, where nomadic peoples have thrived since ancient times, into the territory of the Ming Dynasty, to implement Chinese governance, and to promote agriculture, commerce, and industry! Building a city is the first step! With this city as the foundation, we will establish military settlements, garrison troops, trade, and propagate civilization, firmly rooting the order of the Ming Dynasty here, just like these railways and highways!"

He paused, his tone turning grim: "Moreover, although the Tatars have been destroyed, the Oirats still exist. Although Mahmud and others were previously granted titles by me, it was merely a temporary measure, and their hearts may not truly be subservient. Now, seeing the swift demise of Arughtai, it remains to be seen whether they are filled with fear or harbor other thoughts."

"But... such a huge drain on resources!"

"No problem! The cross-river bridge is nearing completion! The railway from Yingtian to Beiping is also under construction in an orderly manner. Once the railway from Yingtian to Beiping is completed, the pressure on the Ming Dynasty will be reduced."

The Emperor's mind was made up, and no one dared to object.

The decree was issued swiftly, and the massive state apparatus began to operate efficiently once again.

Technical officials from the Ministry of Works and funds and supplies from the Ministry of Revenue began to flow north in a steady stream.

The Ministry of Railways was also working overtime to build the Yingtian-Beiping Railway, and the entire Ming Dynasty was like a war machine that had been wound up.

The final location for Dingbei City was chosen on the south bank of the confluence of the Kerulen River and a tributary.

The terrain here is slightly elevated, with abundant water and vegetation, and it also has the advantage of waterway transportation.

One hundred thousand soldiers transformed into engineering engineers, and under the guidance of officials from the Ministry of Works, they began construction in a great deal of enthusiasm, using local stone and soil, as well as cement and steel bars transported from the south.

The outline of the city wall rose visibly on the horizon, undoubtedly a nail driven into the heart of the grassland.

As expected, the news that the main Tatar force had been swiftly destroyed and that the Ming army had built a fortified city and refused to retreat spread like wildfire across the Mongolian Plateau.

The small tribes that were already struggling to survive between the Oirat and Tatar were terrified and sent envoys with tribute to Dingbei City or the border prefectures of the Ming Dynasty to express their willingness to submit.

Upon receiving the news, the three Oirat tribes—King Mahmud of Shun Ning, King Taiping of Xianyi, and King Batu Boluo of Anle—gathered in Mahmud's golden tent, where the atmosphere was terrifyingly oppressive.

"The Ming army...when did the Ming army become so terrifying?" Taiping's voice was hoarse, and fear still lingered in his eyes. "Arughtai had tens of thousands of troops who had dominated the grasslands for many years, yet they were wiped out in just a few days..."

Bald Boluo's face darkened: "The Ming Emperor's move to build a city and not retreat makes his intentions crystal clear! He wants more than just submission and tribute; he wants this grassland beneath our feet!"

Mahmud remained silent for a long time, his fingers unconsciously tapping the table.

His original intention to sit back and watch the tigers fight, or even to take advantage of the Ming army's exhaustion, has now been completely shattered.

The formidable fighting power displayed by the Ming army and the emperor's unfathomable ambition made him feel an unprecedented sense of crisis.

"The Ming emperor is leaving us no way out..." A ruthless glint flashed in Mahmud's eyes. "If he really dares to come, my Oirat warriors are not cattle to be slaughtered!"

However, before the Oirat Mongols could come up with a countermeasure, the Ming Dynasty had already begun a new round of operations.

In the spring of the eighth year of Tiangong.

The ice and snow are melting, and the grass is just beginning to turn green.

Ping An was appointed "General of Pacifying the North" and led an army of 200,000 men, composed of elite troops from the capital garrison, border troops, and some surrendered cavalry familiar with the grassland environment. They carried more food and a large number of cannons and ammunition, and marched out of the border in a grand procession, with their target being the Oirat Mongols!
This time, the Ming army's strategy was clearer, and its steps were more steady.

Ping An was well aware of the emperor's instruction to "take steady steps and proceed cautiously."

The army was not in a hurry to find the main force of the Oirat to fight, but instead used Dingbei City as a rear support and advanced forward like a rock.

Every time they advanced a certain distance, they built sturdy outposts and fortresses at key water sources and transportation hubs, stationed troops there, and established supply lines.

At the same time, a large number of scouts were dispatched to wipe out small groups of Oirat cavalry and reduce their space for operation.

Like a seasoned hunter, the Ming army, unhurried and patient, was slowly tightening the Oirat's living space with an invisible giant net.

The Oirat cavalry attempted to harass the Ming army using their mobility, but the Ming army's tight formation and powerful firepower made any attempt to get close pay a heavy price.

They also attempted to amass troops to attack Ming army outposts or supply lines, but each outpost was like a hedgehog, with cannons and rifles forming a deadly defensive line, while the main force of the Ming army could quickly reinforce along the controlled transportation lines at any time.

Mahmud and his men discovered in despair that their guerrilla tactics, upon which they depended for survival, were completely ineffective in the face of the Ming army's systematic and fortified advance.

Their pastures were seized, their tribes were divided, and logistical supplies became increasingly difficult.

Finally, on the eastern foothills of the Altai Mountains, the main force of the Oirat Mongols, constantly squeezed and with nowhere left to retreat, engaged in a decisive battle with the main force of the Ming army led by Ping An.

The result was as expected.

Faced with the overwhelming firepower of the Ming army, the Oirat cavalry's charge appeared tragic and futile.

Mahmud, Taiping, and Batu Boluo were killed in battle, and the Oirat coalition forces collapsed.

Ping An pressed his advantage, wiped out the remaining forces, and accepted the surrender of small and medium-sized tribes.

By the autumn of the eighth year of the Tiangong era, the Oirat forces, which had once rivaled the Tatars and dominated the western Mongolian steppe, were also destroyed.

Thus, from southern to western Mongolia, the vast Mongolian steppe was largely brought under the actual control of the Ming Dynasty.

Su Ning did not stop there. He followed the model of the southern desert and built "Anxi City" in a key location in the western desert. He relocated people, settled troops and established military garrisons, and implemented new policies.

The threat from the northern barbarians, which had lasted for hundreds of years, was basically quelled within ten years of Su Ning's ascension to the throne, through a thorough and complete pacification and assimilation of their influence.

The northern frontier of the Ming Dynasty entered a new era dominated by steel, firearms, cities, and a new order.

From then on, the northern borderlands were as beautiful as the Jiangnan region, and the people there began to sing and dance.

After all, advanced firearms and artillery completely eliminated the advantages of nomadic peoples, and only singing and dancing could allow them to integrate into the perfect family.

...(End of chapter)